This article represents the views of the author. The article has not been fact checked by myself, the Board of Directors or any member of the USA Dive Club.

Copyright Disclaimer under section 107 of the Copyright Act of 1976, allowance is made for “fair use” for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, education and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise be infringing.

Chest compressions — The first-line response

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a lifesaving skill, helpful in many situations including:

• Cardiac arrest

• Drowning

• Trauma

• Electrical shock

The American Heart Association recommends that everyone — untrained bystanders and medical personnel alike — begin CPR with chest compression. 1

CPR uses chest compression to imitate how the heart transports blood to the whole body. These compressions help keep oxygenated blood flowing to the brain and other vital organs until proper medical treatment can be provided. 2

During cardiac arrest, stoppage of oxygenated blood supply can damage the brain in only a few minutes. It can prove to be fatal within eight to ten minutes. 1

Why is compression necessary?

The opportunity for a successful resuscitation can be extended by keeping the blood flow active, even partially, until trained medical help arrives on site. 3

CPR saves a life

At present, about ninety percent of the people who suffer cardiac arrest outside the hospital expire. However, CPR improves the chances of saving a life if it is performed at the beginning of the cardiac arrest. The prospect of saving a person’s life can be double or triple with CPR. 2

Recognition of cardiac arrest

The person is healthy one moment, and you unexpectedly see or hear them fall down. You check for consciousness by “shaking and shouting” (Are you alright?) and rub the sternum with your knuckles. This helps to decide whether a person has had some other injury or they are suffering cardiac arrest. If the person doesn’t respond, you should assume that the person has experienced cardiac arrest.

Call for help immediately.

It is most important to call 911. Chest compression circulates some oxygen until help arrives. Tell someone or call yourself for emergency responders. Start chest compressions. Do not delay chest compressions if the pulse cannot be felt within 10 seconds. Immediate chest compression increases the chances of survival. 4

Chest compressions

A person present on the site, whether trained or not, should start chest compressions to the victim suffering cardiac arrest. Chest compressions are now the first-line response rather than opening the airway and delivering rescue breathing. High-quality chest compressions are necessary. Follow the mantra: “push fast and push hard on the center of the chest (i.e., sternum).”

• Chest compressions must be at least 2 inches deep with each down-stroke.

• The rate of compressions must be 100 to 120 per minute.

• While performing chest compressions, the duration and frequency of interruptions must be minimized.

Chest compressions with ventilation can be provided by those trained in the technique and professional medical staff.

Complications

The object of chest compression is to supply blood to the brain, heart, and other vital organs of the body until accurate medical treatment can be provided. If chest compression is not started as quickly as possible, the person experiencing cardiac arrest is likely to die. Complications may include fractures of the ribs, broken teeth, infections, and punctures of the lung. 5 The risk of injury should not stop anyone from performing CPR. If CPR is performed on someone who doesn’t need it, though it can be uncomfortable for that person, only about 2% suffer any type of injury as a result.

Conclusion

It is very uncommon for only chest compressions to recover the heart. However, by continuing constant chest compressions you can dramatically improve the odds of survival by maintaining the victim’s heart in a condition that increases the likelihood that shocks from a defibrillator, administered through bystanders using an automated external defibrillator (AED) or administered by paramedics will result in survival. 4

Chest compressions are the first line response in CPR. If you are hesitant to do mouth-to-mouth, chest compressions alone may still be life-saving.5 It’s far better to do something than to do nothing if you are afraid and doubtful of your knowledge and abilities. Remember, the difference between you doing something and doing nothing could be someone’s life. 1 For more information in this regard check out our ACLS BLS recertification online and take CPR online classes.

Learn about BLS vs ACLS relation by checking out our online courses like online ACLS recertification and BLS certification and recertification courses.

References

1. https://www.mayoclinic.org/first-aid/first-aid-cpr/basics/art-20056600

2. https://www.cdc.gov/heart-disease/about/heart-attack.html

3. https://cpr.heart.org/en/resources/what-is-cpr

4. [https://heart.arizona.edu/heart-health/learn-cpr/frequently-asked-questions-about-chest-compression-only-cpr](https://heart.arizona.edu/heart-health/learn-cpr/frequently-asked-questions-about-chest-compression-only-cpr)

5. https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/cardiopulmonary-resuscitation-cpr

Reviewed by Jessica Munoz DPN, RN, CEN, providing nurse training at Yale New Haven Health-Bridgeport Hospital since 2022. Previously in healthcare and education at Griffin Hospital, St. Vincent's College of Nursing and Sacred Heart University Medical Center.

More by this author:

• Common pitfalls in CPR certification exam: Tips & guidance

• First aid for an unconscious person: ACLS certification guide

• PALS certification: Misunderstood concepts & exam tips

This page was last updated on Mar 3, 2025. 

This article represents the views of the author. The article has not been fact checked by myself, the Board of Directors or any member of the USA Dive Club.

Copyright Disclaimer under section 107 of the Copyright Act of 1976, allowance is made for “fair use” for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, education and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyrightstatute that might otherwise be infringing.

5 Tips To Stay Safe On Your Next Dive Trip

Commit to these rules before you dive

By Brooke Morton  Scuba Diving Magazine

1 Get Cleared To Dive If any aspect of your health has changed since your last dive trip, book a checkup. “Encourage your doctor to get on the phone with us” if they’re not familiar with dive safety, says Brian Harper, director of communications for Divers Alert Network. DAN has doctors who are experts in dive medicine and offers doctor consults daily. Another tip: “You’ll want to have been stable on any medications for a month prior to your trip.”

2 Bring Safety Gear If a destination is remote, has currents or allows divers to explore with a buddy and no guide, you’ll want to bring a personal locator beacon. At the very least, you’ll need a surface marker buoy—and the know-how to deploy it at depth. “That does a number of things: It allows the crew of your dive boat to keep tabs on your location and mitigates your risk of being lost or left behind, and it broadcasts your location to other boats, which reduces risks of propeller injuries,” says Harper.

3 Have Your Own Emergency Plan Every dive destination comes with a different set of risks. Research what those might be, and take the time to develop your own emergency action plan, or EAP. “Being an advocate for your own safety can pay dividends in terms of keeping yourself safe,” says Harper. On a liveaboard, for instance, plan how to get from your cabin to the emergency stations—and be able to do it blindfolded. “Chances are, in an emergency, you may not have lights.”

4 Take A Class If you don’t know the first thing about what to do in various emergencies, take a class. Some of the most relevant for divers include the DAN first-aid courses, Oxygen Administrator, CPR, Basic Life Support, and Hazardous Marine Life Injuries. “Becoming proficient in Basic Life Support is especially important if you’re traveling to remote locations and access to hospitals is delayed,” says Harper.

5 Invest In Peace Of Mind DAN membership and DAN Dive Accident Insurance are two separate purchases. DAN membership covers the transport to a treating facility, and accident insurance covers the cost of medical treatment. Without membership and dive accident insurance, each can cost tens of thousands of dollars.

This article represents the views of the authors. The article has not been fact checked by myself, the Board of Directors or any member of the USA Dive Club.

Copyright Disclaimer under section 107 of the Copyright Act of 1976, allowance is made for “fair use” for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, education and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise be infringing.

Calculating the proper weight for diving lets you achieve neutral buoyancy

By Karl Shreeves |

Want to reduce your air consumption? Be able to fin faster and farther with less effort? Look relaxed and in perfect control? Finish the dive with less fatigue?

The secret is to pinpoint buoyancy control, and it all begins with fine-tuning your weighting—that's how much lead you thread on your belt or put into your integrated weight system. When you have exactly as much as you need, you have the smallest amount of air in your BCD needed for neutral buoyancy at a given depth. That means less drag and more efficient finning. It also means there's less BCD volume change with depth change, so you'll make smaller adjustments.

For the rest of this article, please use this link.

Buoyancy Calculator—How Much You Need in Dive Weights | Scuba Diving

This article represents the views of the authors. The article has not been fact checked by myself, the Board of Directors or any member of the USA Dive Club.

Copyright Disclaimer under section 107 of the Copyright Act of 1976, allowance is made for “fair use” for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, education and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyrightstatute that might otherwise be infringing.

Scuba Q & A: Common Questions Asked By Nondivers

By Linda Lee Walden

When you tell friends and co-workers that you’ve recently been certified to scuba dive, their immediate reaction is likely to be an incredulous, “Wow. You did? I’m not sure I could do that!”

This knee-jerk response is often closely followed by a rash of questions indicating intense curiosity mixed with a touch of apprehension and perhaps a fair amount of misinformation. This article answers several of the questions most commonly asked by those who haven’t tried scuba yet. You can consider it a primer for the would-be diver, the friend, co-worker or family member who you think might enjoy our sport. By acting as a scuba steward, you might help turn a nondiver into a new diver — and maybe your dive buddy.

Is it hard to learn to scuba dive?

As active recreational pastimes go, scuba diving is one of the easiest to learn. While you’re gliding around enjoying the underwater sights, you’re engaged in only three basic skills: floating, kicking and breathing. Of course, there’s more to it that becoming proficient at using the equipment and developing knowledge of scuba concepts and safety procedures, but if you can breathe through your mouth, chances are you can learn to scuba dive.

The necessary skills are not tough for most people to master. During scuba certification class, you’re taught the effects of increased water pressure and safe diving practices. You rehearse equipment related skills in a controlled water setting until you feel comfortable, as well as practice what to do if things don’t go as planned.

The bulky scuba gear worn by many divers may seem intimidating, but learning to use it is straightforward. If you’ve snorkeled, you’re already familiar with the mask, snorkel and fins. The scuba unit consists of an air cylinder containing compressed breathing gas, buoyancy compensator (BC) jacket to help you float on the surface and maintain your desired depth underwater, and a regulator for you to breathe through. The exposure protection keeps you warm when diving in cool-water environments.

You don’t need to be a strong swimmer or an athlete to scuba dive, but some degree of comfort in the water certainly helps. Even if you enter scuba training with less than total confidence in your water skills, by the time you receive your first certification card, your comfort level will be greatly increased.

Learning to scuba dive is mostly a matter of attitude. If you are motivated to step through the door into an exciting new world, then the experience will prove both energizing and confidence-building.

For the balance of this article from Dive Training Magazine use this link.

Scuba Q & A: Common Questions Asked By Nondivers - Dive Training Magazine | Scuba Diving Skills, Gear, Education

This article represents the views of the authors. The article has not been fact checked by myself, the Board of Directors or any member of the USA Dive Club.

Copyright Disclaimer under section 107 of the Copyright Act of 1976, allowance is made for “fair use” for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, education and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise be infringing.

A Guide to Ocean Conservation Organizations and Efforts

The ocean is the largest ecosystem on Earth — it is the planet’s life support system and is affected by overfishing, pollution, and habitat...

The ocean is the largest ecosystem on Earth — it is the planet’s life support system and is affected by overfishing, pollution, and habitat destruction, compromising its ability to sustain humans with food, livelihoods and climate regulation. In this article, we’ll take a look at some of the movements and organizations making waves in ocean conservation

Healthy oceans sustain life here on planet earth — our security, our economy and our survival all require and are dependent on healthy oceans. Oceans provide us with food – seafood makes up at least a sixth of the animal protein people eat.

Oceans produce the air we breathe and the weather we experience. The ocean produces over half of the world’s oxygen and absorbs 50 times more carbon dioxide than our atmosphere.

Oceans regulate our climate. Covering 70 percent of the Earth’s surface, the ocean transports heat from the equator to the poles, regulating our climate and weather patterns.

From hotel rooms to dive trips and fishing trips, from clothing and fishing gear, the oceans support jobs. It is estimated that the oceans are responsible for more than $282B in revenue in the U.S. alone.

The ocean and its coral reefs provide natural breakwaters to buffer and protect our shorelines. The reef’s rough surfaces and complex structures dissipate the force of incoming waves, helping prevent flooding, erosion, property damage and loss of life.

Because of the impact the oceans have on every minute of every day, and on our future, ocean conservation is more essential now than ever before.

Many factors are affecting our oceans health today. Sea temperatures are increasing and the warmer oceans cause corals to bleach and die. Oceans today absorb about one-third of the carbon dioxide sent into the atmosphere — about 22 million tons a day. Increased carbon means higher levels of acidification — about 30 times greater than previous norms. This higher acidity results in the disruption of calcium carbonate formation. This can affect whole ecosystems, such as coral reefs, which depend on the formation of calcium carbonate to build reef structure, which in turn provides homes for reef organisms.

Pollution is a key factor in our oceans health. Many pesticides and nutrients used in agriculture end up in the coastal waters, resulting in oxygen depletion that kills marine plants and shellfish. Factories and industrial plants still discharge sewage and other runoff into the oceans. Oil spills pollute the oceans. Air pollution is responsible for almost one-third of the toxic contaminants and nutrients that enter coastal areas and oceans.

Over fishing is also contributing to our oceans declining health. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that 31.4 percent of fish stocks are either fished to capacity or over fished.

A recent Dive Training article, The Sickly Seas: Reaping the Unwanted Harvest of a Plastic Overload outlines the problem of plastic pollution in our oceans and how it’s endangering marine life including seabirds, and the fact that humans are indirectly consuming plastics through the seafood we eat.

Ocean Conservation: Turning the Tide

There’s no shortage of factors affecting the health of our oceans, but there’s good news on the horizon, too. Out there, beyond the predictions, are legions of individuals, communities, businesses, non-governmental agencies and governments working to solve the problems. Let’s take a look at some of the people helping to make ocean conservation a reality.

For the rest of this article use the link below/

A Guide To Ocean Conservation Organizations And Efforts - Dive Training Magazine

This article represents the views of the authors. The article has not been fact checked by myself, the Board of Directors or any member of the USA Dive Club.

Copyright Disclaimer under section 107 of the Copyright Act of 1976, allowance is made for “fair use” for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, education and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise be infringing.

Did You See That? The Art of Observing Marine Life

By Marty Snyderman

The fish, a spectacularly colored grouper, paused and opened its mouth. Finning only slightly to maintain its position just a foot (30 cm) or so above the reef, this brightly colored red and blue-spotted grouper waited patiently for another fish, a cleaner wrasse, to provide its services. Within only a few seconds the cleaner approached and went to work, moving from the tail toward the head along the grouper’s body. The cleaner paused every few seconds to pick at the skin of the grouper.

Like other cleaner species, cleaner wrasses help rid groupers and other host animals of irritating ectoparasites that can be found on the skin of the hosts. In doing so the cleaners gain a meal while the host benefits by getting cleaned.

My dive buddy and I followed the grouper as it slowly moved down the reef. We watched as another fish, the same general size and shape as the cleaner wrasse, appeared. Looking quite confident that additional cleaning services were about to be rendered, the grouper paused and opened its mouth. In the blink of an eye, the fish I thought was a second cleaner wrasse swam up and bit a chunk of skin out of the side of the obviously startled grouper.

Clearly, the attacker was a mimic, a species that does a good enough job of imitating a cleaner species to fool groupers and other fishes into thinking the mimic is the real deal. It’s a risky business to try to fool well-equipped predators, but if well-done, the act of deceit can provide a mimic with a meal. If done badly, no more meals will be necessary. This mimic was a tiger blenny, a fact that, like the grouper, I realized only after the daring blenny had enjoyed its success.

After the dive I excitedly asked my diving buddy what she thought of the scene we had just witnessed, and much to my surprise, her only comment was, “that big fish sure is pretty.” At first I thought she was putting me on, but I soon realized that she had missed both the cleaning and the attack. She had noticed that the grouper had its mouth open rather wide, but she wasn’t sure why. She thought the fish might have been injured.

Observing marine life is like putting puzzle pieces together. When you look at one fish, you see only one piece of the puzzle. Yet when you connect the pieces — say a fish to its habitat and to other creatures within that habitat — you begin to see the inner workings of a marine ecosystem.

But how does one go from fish watcher to underwater naturalist? First, the more you dive, the more you will begin to see various subtleties, and the better observer you will become. You’ll find that your awareness of the underwater world increases with time, the number of dives and the variety of habitats you get to explore and enjoy. Second, it helps to learn about what’s going on under the waves so you are more likely to recognize the happenings that you encounter during your dives.

For the rest of this article, please use this link.

Did You See That? The Art Of Observing Marine Life - Dive Training Magazine | Scuba Diving Skills, Gear, Education

This article represents the views of the author.  The article has not been fact checked by myself, the Board of Directors or any member of the USA Dive Club.

Copyright Disclaimer under section 107 of the Copyright Act of 1976, allowance is made for “fair use” for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, education and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise infringing. Only Pictures, Leave At Most Bubbles? The Case for Wreck Preservation

Should artifacts be removed and recovered from shipwrecks, or should our underwater cultural heritage be left undisturbed? Regardless of what your choice is,, under which circumstances? These are the questions that Finnish CMAS instructor, and scientific diver Rupert Simon seeks to answer based on directives from UNESCO’s 2001 Convention along with several governments and training agencies.

Many years back, a fellow diver proudly showed me an amphorae (likely Roman) he had salvaged from a wreck in the Mediterranean Sea. Relatively recently, I watched a video in which a diver brings up an intact porthole from the bottom of the Baltic. Last December, I saw photos in a scuba blog that showed divers presenting their trophies—amongst them was a self-described “… avid collector of shipwreck artifacts.” These examples show that collecting artifacts from shipwrecks, which are de-facto archaeological sites of cultural heritage, is still common. I can’t help but wonder how the habit of collecting items from wrecks for personal benefit applies to the preservation goals taught throughout all main international scuba diving certification bodies. 

For the complete Indepth article use the link below.

Take Only Pictures, Leave At Most Bubbles? The Case for Wreck Preservation - InDEPTH (indepthmag.com)

This article represents the views of the author.  The article has not been fact checked by myself, the Board of Directors or any member of the USA Dive Club.

Copyright Disclaimer under section 107 of the Copyright Act of 1976, allowance is made for “fair use” for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, education and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise be infringing.

DIVING SAFETY

How Current Are Your Rescue Skills?

By Wally Endres and Christine Tamburri. 

When was the last time you had an in-water emergency while diving where your reaction saved a life? Maybe we should ask a more critical question: was it an event or was it actually an emergency? Are you a proactive or reactive diver? 

For the full article in InDepth magazine, please use the link below.

How Current Are Your Rescue Skills? - InDEPTH (indepthmag.com)

This article represents the views of the author. The article has not been fact checked by myself, the Board of Directors or any member of the USA Dive Club

. Copyright Disclaimer under section 107 of the Copyright Act of 1976, allowance is made for “fair use” for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, education and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise be infringing.

Understanding Oxygen Toxicity: Part 1

 Looking Back In this first of a two-part series, Diver Alert Network’s Reilly Fogarty examines the research that has led to our current working understanding of oxygen toxicity. He presents the history of oxygen toxicity research, our current toxicity models, the external risk factors we now understand, and what the future of this research will look like. Mind your PO2s!

For the entire InDEPT; article please use the link below.

Understanding Oxygen Toxicity: Part 1 – Looking Back - InDEPTH (indepthmag.com)

What to Do If You Have a Rash After Scuba Diving

This article represents the views of the author.  The article has not been fact checked by myself, the Board of Directors or any member of the USA Dive Club.

Copyright Disclaimer under section 107 of the Copyright Act of 1976, allowance is made for “fair use” for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, education and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise be infringing.

An unexplained skin rash can mean more serious problems

By Eric Douglas 

About an hour and a half after her second dive of the day, Jan’s buddy noticed a rash on Jan’s back and hip as she pulled her wetsuit down. They immediately alerted the dive crew.

The Diver

Jan was a 55-year-old diver who learned to dive for her 50th birthday. She made 15 to 20 dives each summer and was in overall good health.

The Dives

Jan and her buddy were on a daylong charter trip with three dives planned. They did two deep dives in the morning to explore an artificial reef. They planned for a shallower dive after a surface interval.

The Accident

After noticing the red and itchy rash on her back and side, Jan removed her wetsuit and took a warm shower. Cortisone cream relieved the itchiness, but her skin remained blotchy.

She called the emergency line at Divers Alert Network (DAN) after consulting with the crew, reporting no other signs or symptoms other than the rash. She had no dizziness, lethargy or loss of her ability to walk normally.

Jan skipped the third dive of the day and went to the emergency room once the boat returned to the dock.

Related Reading: The Risks of Forgoing Drysuit Training

Analysis

A sudden rash while diving could be sea lice or another ocean irritant, but the red-bluish discoloration underneath the skin indicated a likely case of skin bends.

Skin bends is a presentation of decompression sickness (DCS). It is a buildup of nitrogen in the tissues and bloodstream.

When a rash suddenly appears after a dive, especially a deep or long dive, it could signal a bigger issue and requires a full evaluation from a doctor trained in diving medicine. Look for areas of numbness or tingling in the body, extreme tiredness, feeling unsteady on your feet or even problems urinating.

Repeated instances of subcutaneous rashes or other more serious symptoms following diving may be a sign of a patent foramen ovale (PFO)—a hole in the heart wall between the upper chambers of the heart. Under the right conditions, it can allow blood from the venous circulation to pass into the arterial circulation. Nitrogen gas bubbles in the bloodstream would normally be filtered out by the lungs, but when they move into the arterial circulation, they can cause problems. Having a PFO is not a problem in everyday life, but it does increase the risk of more serious neurological DCS symptoms with diving. A surgical procedure can repair it.

Jan’s symptoms continued to resolve as she rested and hydrated. The emergency physician prescribed Benadryl, which seemed to help, but that doesn’t exclude the possibility of skin bends. With a potential DCS case, the boat crew should have administered oxygen.

Some divers make the mistake of diving even after symptoms appear. Jan wisely chose to skip the final dive. She returned to diving a week later but switched to nitrox and dived more conservatively.

Lessons For Life

• Pay attention to your body. When unusual symptoms appear within 24 hours of diving, be aware that you may have a diving-related injury, and consult with DAN.
• Understand the signs and symptoms. Learn what to watch for when it comes to decompression sickness.
• Learn how to respond. Rescue and oxygen first-aid training prepare you to identify and respond to a suspected case of DCS in your dive buddy or yourself.